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Secondary Lead Smelters: New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)

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Secondary Lead Smelters: New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)

Legal Authorities

• 42 U.S.C. §(c)

Federal Register Citations

• 88 FR
• 40 FR
• 39 FR
• 39 FR
• 38 FR

Code of Federal Regulations Citations

• 40 CFR Part 60 Subpart L
• 40 CFR Part 60 Subpart La

Rule Summary

The secondary lead smelting industry involves recycling lead-bearing scrap material, typically lead acid batteries, into elemental lead or lead alloys. The established standards limit emissions of particulate matter from blast (cupola) and reverberatory furnaces to no more than 50 mg/dscm (10.022 gr/dscf) and to less than 20 percent opacity. For pot furnaces with charging capacities equal to or greater than 250 kilograms, the opacity must be under 10 percent.

As of November 9th, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized amendments to the New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) for Secondary Lead Smelters. A new NSPS subpart La applies to sources constructed, reconstructed, or modified after the publication of the final rule. Secondary lead smelting facilities recycle lead-bearing scrap materials into elemental lead or lead alloys, utilizing blast, reverberatory, and rotary kiln furnaces. Notably, there are 11 secondary lead smelters in the U.S. adhering to these NSPS.

Rule History

11/20/ - Final Rule

01/17/ - Extension of Public Comment Period

12/01/ - Proposed rule.

10/06/ - Final rule.

07/15/ - Proposed rule.

03/08/ - Final rule.

06/11/ - Proposed rule.

Lead Smelting

The Doe Run primary lead smelting facility in Herculaneum, Missouri, is now closed. Facilities that produce lead are commonly known as lead smelters. Primary lead production begins with sintering, where concentrated lead ore is combined with iron, silica, limestone fluxes, coke, soda ash, pyrite, zinc, caustics, or pollution control particulates. Smelting uses reducing substances to extract the metal.

Lead ores

Lead's most common mineral, Galena, comprises lead sulfide (PbS). The sulfide oxidizes to a sulfite (PbSO3), which decomposes into lead oxide and sulfur dioxide gas (PbO and SO2). Other lead ores include Anglesite, Cerussite, Pyromorphite, Mimetite, and Wulfenite. Elements like zinc and silver frequently accompany lead ores.

Secondary Lead Processing

Most lead production originates from secondary sources like lead-acid batteries, cable coverings, and pipes. Secondary lead is typically used in batteries. To recover lead from a battery, components are classified and processed in blast furnaces for hard lead or rotary reverberatory furnaces for fine particles. The molten lead can be alloyed with metals like antimony, tin, arsenic, copper, and nickel, then cast into ingots.

Lead Exposure

Humans have smelted lead for millennia, often resulting in poisoning. Despite advancements in understanding the dangers of lead exposure, no safe threshold has been established. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization state that blood lead levels of 10 µg/dL or higher are concerning. However, even lower levels can be harmful. Children near lead smelters are particularly at risk of raised blood lead levels.

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History

The earliest known cast lead beads, found at Çatalhöyük in Turkey, were initially thought to be of pure lead but were later identified as cerussite and galena—minerals rich in lead. Primitive smelting used lead ore and charcoal in outdoor hearths. In ancient times, lead had limited impact due to its softness but was used for piping, water storage, and writing materials.

Lead contamination has historical roots, with Roman smelting contributing to global pollution. Ice cores from Greenland show elevated lead levels from 500 BCE to 300 CE. European airborne lead pollution levels correlated with historical economic changes, such as the shift from gold to silver in the monetary system around 640 CE. Georgius Agricola documented 16th-century European lead smelting methods in his work De Re Metallica.

There are approximately 400 forgotten lead-smelting firms in the USA from the 1930s to 1960s that may have left high levels of lead contamination in nearby soil.

Historic Mining and Smelting Sites

Asia

Australia

Europe

North America

South America

Active Lead Mines and Smelters

• Rönnskär copper smelter in Skelleftehamn, Sweden, producing copper, zinc clinker, lead, and precious metals.
• Bergsöe lead smelter outside Landskrona, Sweden, extracting lead from scrap car batteries.
• KCM in Plovdiv has produced lead for over 60 years using a blast furnace, soon to be replaced by a modern TSL furnace.

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