Jul. 15, 2024
Construction & Real Estate
by James N. Britton ()
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Corrosion at pipe supports is one of the leading causes of topside process piping failure. This paper will discuss the various corrosion mechanisms that occur at pipe supports if they are not adequately protected. I-Rod, a proven method of prevention with a long record of successful application will be presented. This paper also discusses inspection strategies for pipe supports and provides a simplified visual screening method that has proved useful in mechanical integrity programs.
The writer's company is engaged in the inspection of offshore oil and gas facilities in the Gulf of Mexico as well as other international production areas. A major part of those inspections is the integrity of topside process systems, piping, and associated vessels and tanks. There is no doubt that statistically, corrosion at pipe supports is the most common cause of external piping corrosion failure. It is for this reason that the writer's company developed the solution most widely employed in the Gulf of Mexico to eliminate this problem (I-Rod® brand pipe supports).
1. Standard beam support:
The pipe is rested on, or secured to, a support member usually of a standard structural shape (I-beam, wide flange beam, angle, channel, etc.). The pipe may be secured to this member with a stabilizing U-bolt (Figures 1 and 2 below).
Figure 1 - Typical I-beam pipe support (note that the pipe is in full contact with the I-beam)
Figure 2 - U-Bolt stabilized beam supports
2. Saddle clamp:
Pipe is clamped between two rolled plates. One of these plates has a structural element welded to it which attaches the pipe to the support structure (Figures 3 & 4 below).
Figure 3 - Typical half-saddle clamp
Figure 4 - Full-saddle clamp
3. Welded support
This type of support involves welding a part to the pipe which is usually free to move at the interface to the support. There are a number of variations on this theme, and is a common approach for insulated piping systems. (Figure 5 below).
Figure 5 - Typical welded pipe support. Allows for movement at support interface, but allows corrosion as well.
4. Others
There are a number of other methods used, such as flange bolt supports, various type of pipe hangers and other specialty-type supports. However, the first two categories account statistically for better than 95% of support points on a typical offshore structure.
Not surprisingly, it is the beam supports and the saddle clamps that have historically caused the majority of the problems. They have the following undesirable features in common:
1. Crevice forming - This is the root of the problem: the formation of a crevice at the pipe surface.
2. Water trapping - These support types all allow water to be trapped and held in contact with the pipe surface.
3. Poor inspectability and maintainability - These support types make it virtually impossible to paint or otherwise maintain some areas of the pipe at the support. Visual inspection is often difficult, and until fairly recently, it was also very difficult to inspect these areas with NDT methods.
4. Galvanic couple forming - Some of these support types may develop bi-metallic contact. Even though both the pipe and support are steel, the metallurgical differences can still provide a small potential difference to create a corrosion cell.
It is a common misconception that metal-to-metal contact coupled with water entrapment is the major cause of corrosion at these points. This is not the case; the sequence of events is as follows:
1. Water is trapped - The very nature of the supports allows water to be held in contact with the painted pipe surface as well as the paint on the support element.
2. The paint system fails - Even if the paint on the pipe and support beam are perfect, the paint system is designed for atmospheric exposure and not immersion service. The longer the paint surface is continuously exposed to water, the more it softens. As the pipe softens, it is inevitable that the steel substrate will be directly exposed to the water.
3. Corrosion is initiated - The small area of steel now exposed to oxygenated water (often with high chlorides) starts to corrode.
4. Corrosion undercuts paint film - The initial corrosion soon undercuts and spreads (Fig. 6 below). Soon the whole support area is bare steel.
5. Crevice corrosion starts - From this point on, the crevice corrosion driven by differential aeration takes over from the general corrosion mechanism that initiated the corrosion. As corrosion products build, they further restrict oxygen diffusion and the oxygen concentration gradient gets steeper. Pitting now becomes the main problem with corrosion rates accelerating by an order of magnitude. (Fig. 7 below)
6. Pipe fails - If the inspection program is not set up to detect this mostly concealed wall loss, the pipe will fail.
Figure 6 - Paint is progressively undercut away from initiation site
Figure 7 - Advanced crevice corrosion
The industry has long been aware of the problem but has failed to appreciate the true causes; this is evidenced by some of the following solutions that have been implemented to stop the problem which have actually accelerated the problem.
As previously stated, it was thought that the metal-to-metal contact was the main problem causing pipe support corrosion. As a result, initial designs incorrectly targeted this aspect of the supports. Some operators still use rubber pads of varying types in an attempt to solve this problem, despite industry knowledge that they are counter-productive. (Fig. 8 below) In fact, rubber pads under pipes do a wonderful job of reducing the life of the pipe. The crevice that was formed without the rubber pad is mild in comparison to the new crevice, which now has the ability to suck water in (by capillary action). Not only does the pad invite water in, it is better at holding it trapped against the pipe surface since air circulation and natural evaporation is eliminated. The situation is further worsened by the length of the crevice which allows an oxygen concentration gradient to go from full natural concentration to anaerobic in a few centimeters.
Figure 8 - Rubber pads accelerate crevice corrosion
Contoured pads attached to the pipe at support points (Fig. 9 below). Obviously, another attempt to eliminate metal-to-metal contact. This is better than the rubber pads, but still allows a crevice to be formed at the pipe's surface.
Figure 9 - Fiberglass contoured pads still risk crevice corrosion failure
The welded support is a viable solution. However, it adds significant cost to a typical project both in terms of construction and inspection. In some situations, it would be undesirable to make so many external longitudinal welds to a pressured piping system. There have been some other solutions adopted, none of which really addresses the major cause of the problem: Water entrapment.
Clearly, the solution must address the root causes of the problem and should have certain features that make application practical. The important features of one successful solution that is in widespread use throughout the offshore community are as follows:
1. The crevices at the pipe surface and the ability to trap and hold water in contact with the pipe surface must be eliminated.
2. As a secondary concern, metal-to-metal contact should be eliminated if possible.
3. The solution should allow easy maintenance and inspection of the pipe at the support point.
4. The system must provide complete support to the piping system.
5. The system will ideally be non-size-specific.
6. It must be applicable to new construction and retrofits, and should require no hot work to install.
7. It must be cost-effective.
The half round, high-strength thermoplastic I-Rod® (Fig. 10 below), meets all of the above requirements. The half-round configuration minimizes the crevice at the pipe and allows no water accumulation. The standoff provided allows easy inspection and maintenance at the support. The metal-to-metal contact is eliminated, and if used with an insulated bolt (Fig. 11 below), the pipe can be totally isolated from the support structure. The low-cost material has been selected and configured to optimize compressive strength while exhibiting very low creep. The material can be deployed as a continuous dressing to the top of a pipe-support beam (Fig. 12 below), or can be integrated with a stabilizing U-bolt (Fig. 13 below). Either way allows cold work installation for new construction or retrofit applications.
When using U-bolts, it is important to apply a polyolefin sleeve over the shank of the bolt. This reduces the risk of cracking the paint film around the pipe as the bolt is torqued down.This material provides the right combination of hardness and durability to protect the pipe paint but avoids setting up a capillary crevice around the circumference of the pipe.
Figure 10: The half-round pipe-support interface (trademarked as I-Rod®)
Figure 11 - Rod installed with polyolefin-sheathed U-bolt
Figure 12 - Rod installed as beam dressing
Figure 13 - Typical rod and U-bolt stand-alone support
The I-Rod® system described above was first introduced in the mid s; now there are thousands of offshore structures worldwide using this system. The first platform to be completely fitted with the material was installed in the Gulf of Mexico in . A more recent re-inspection in revealed no corrosion at any pipe-support points, and no degradation of the material. These pictures show the pipe support condition after 13 years offshore (Fig. 14 - 16 below).
Figure 14 - Beam dressing supports after 13 years offshore
Figure 15 - Rod in place under pig-launch barrel after 13 years
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Featured content:Figure 16 - More rod and bolt combinations after 13 years offshore
A side benefit to the application of this system was discovered by a major Gulf Coast fabricator. When using the material, which was attached to the upper surface of pipe racks with a special double-sided adhesive tape, it was discovered that the pipe fitting and installation was accomplished with virtually no installation damage to the paint system on the piping. This was particularly valuable in reducing the number of spot repairs that had to be made before delivery of the deck structures.
As one would expect with such an apparently simple solution, there have been many attempts to copy it. This usually results in an unsatisfactory result, as most of these materials do not possess the required properties. The materials will usually crush under the load (Fig. 17 below) or will creep with time causing the support to loosen (Fig. 18 below). In either case, the crevice control and desirable properties are lost.
Figure 17 - Imitations made of low-grade material are crushed under load
Figure 18 - Some "look-alike" materials creep with time
While cataloging the extent and severity of the problem, it was necessary to develop inspection strategies that would allow high-risk items to be addressed before failure. In recent years, improvements in guided-wave ultrasonic inspection have allowed a more quantitative approach to this type of inspection, but this is a costly and relatively time-consuming process. It was necessary to have a visual guideline that would help to screen the supports that required further inspection. While deceptively simple, the system has worked very well, and &#; when combined with other risk-based drivers that affect likelihood and consequence of failure &#; should allow rapid screening of large numbers of support points:
The corrosion that we are looking for is crevice corrosion, as opposed to general corrosion. This corrosion is then graded in three levels: light moderate and heavy. Definitions used to define these are as follows:
CC-L (Light Crevice Corrosion) - Corrosion products visible but no evidence of layered scaling.
CC-M (Moderate Crevice Corrosion) - A single layer of corrosion scale is visible at the edge of the crevice.
CC-H (Heavy Crevice Corrosion) - Copious corrosion product leaching and visible multi-layer corrosion scale is visible.
When investigated more closely, the CC-H situations normally show a wall loss at the deepest pit of >40%. A visual guide is provided for inspectors to assist in making the correct call (Fig. 19 below).
Figure 19 - Comparison of crevice corrosion severity at pipe supports
When designing pipe supports, avoid the use of saddle clamps wherever possible. Never use a rubber pad between a pipe and a pipe support if the area is exposed to a corrosive environment. When using U-bolts to stabilize piping, always use polyolefin-sheathed bolts. The half-round rod solution has proven to be very effective in controlling pipe-support corrosion over the last 15 years on thousands of offshore structures.
No reports of pipe support failures or even repairs have been received from structures fitted with the I-Rod® system.
For more information about I-Rod® brand pipe supports, visit http://stoprust.com/i-rod-pipe-supports/
A pipe support or pipe hanger is a designed element that transfer the load from a pipe to the supporting structures. The load includes the weight of the pipe proper, the content that the pipe carries, all the pipe fittings attached to pipe, and the pipe covering such as insulation. The four main functions of a pipe support are to anchor, guide, absorb shock, and support a specified load. Pipe supports used in high or low temperature applications may contain insulation materials. The overall design configuration of a pipe support assembly is dependent on the loading and operating conditions.
Loads on piping system
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Primary load
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These are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as internal fluid pressure, external pressure, gravitational forces acting on the pipe such as weight of pipe and fluid, forces due to relief or blow down, pressure waves generated due to water/steam hammer effects.[1]
Sustained loads:
Occasional loads:
Secondary load
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Just as the primary loads have their origin in some force, secondary loads are caused by displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage tank may be under load if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down due to tank settlement. Similarly, pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is attached to.
Displacement loads:
A pipe may experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or lower respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The secondary loads are often cyclic but not always. For example, load due to tank settlement is not cyclic. The load due to vessel nozzle movement during operation is cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn during shut-down and resurfaces again after fresh start-up. A pipe subjected to a cycle of hot and cold fluid similarly undergoes cyclic loads and deformation.
Types of pipe supports
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Pipe Guides (Cylinder Pipe Guides - Spider Guides)Rigid support
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Rigid supports are used to restrict pipe in certain direction(s) without any flexibility (in that direction). Main function of a rigid support can be Anchor, Rest, Guide or both Rest & Guide.
1) Stanchion/pipe shoe:
Rigid support can be provided either from bottom or top. In case of bottom supports generally a stanchion or Pipe Clamp Base is used. It can be simply kept on steel structure for only rest type supports. To simultaneously restrict in another direction separate plate or Lift up Lug can be used. A pipe anchor is a rigid support that restricts movement in all three orthogonal directions and all three rotational directions, i.e. restricting al the 6 degrees of freedom This usually is a welded stanchion that is welded or bolted to steel or concrete.[2] In case of anchor which is bolted to concrete, a special type of bolt is required called Anchor Bolt, which is used to hold the support with concrete. In this type of support, normal force and friction force can become significant. To alleviate the frictional effect Graphite Pad or PTFE plates are used when required.
Pipe Anchors (Permali Cold Shoes)2) Rod hanger:
It is a static restraint i.e. it is designed to withstand tensile load only (no compression load should be exerted on it, in such case buckling may take place). It is rigid vertical type support provide from top only. It consists of clamp, eye nut, tie rod, beam attachment. Selection of rod hanger depends on pipe size, load, temperature, insulation, assembly length etc. As it comes with hinge and clamp, no substantial frictional force comes into play.
3) Rigid strut:
It is a dynamic component i.e. designed to withstand both tensile and compression load. strut can be provide in vertical as well as horizontal direction. V-type Strut can be used to restrict two degrees of freedom. It consists of stiff clamp, rigid strut, welding clevis. Selection depends on pipe size, load, temperature, insulation, assembly length. As it comes with hinge and clamp, no substantial frictional force comes into play.
[3]Spring support
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Spring supports (or flexible supports) use helical coil compression springs (to accommodate loads and associated pipe movements due to thermal expansion). They are broadly classified into variable or constant effort support. The critical component in both the type of supports are helical coil compression springs. Spring hanger & supports usually use helical coil compression springs.
1.Variable spring hanger or variable effort support:
Variable effort supports also known as variable hangers or variables are used to support pipe lines subjected to moderate (approximately up to 50mm) vertical thermal movements. VES units (Variable effort supports) are used to support the weight of pipe work or equipment along with weight of fluids ( gases are considered weightless) while allowing certain quantum of movement with respect to the structure supporting it. Spring supports may also be used to support lines subject to relative movements occurring typically due to subsidence or earthquakes. A VES unit is fairly simple in construction with the pipe virtually suspended directly from a helical coil compression spring as the cut away sectional sketch shows below. The main components being:
Normally clients / engineering consultants will furnish the following data when issuing inquiries for variable effort units.
Hot load is the working load of the support in the &#;Hot&#; condition i.e. when the pipe has traveled from the cold condition to the hot or working condition. Normally MSS-SP58 specifies max Load Variation ( popularly called LV) as 25%.[4]
Salient features-
Used where
Load variation (LV) or percentage variation =[(hot load ~cold load) x 100]/hot load or load variation (LV) or percentage variation =[(travel x spring rate) x 100]/Hot Load Generally spring supports are provided from top but due to layout feasibility or any other reason Base Mounted type support is fixed to floor or structure & the pipe is made to &#;sit&#; on top of the flange of the spring support.
2.Constant spring hanger or constant effort support:
Bell crank in CSHWhen confronted with large vertical movements typically 150 mm or 250 mm, there is no choice but to select a constant effort support (CES). When the Load variation percentage exceeds 25% or the specified max LV% in a variable hanger, it is choice less but to go for a CES. For pipes which are critical to the performance of the system or so called critical piping where no residual stresses are to be transferred to the pipe it is a common practice to use CES. In a constant effort support the load remains constant when the pipe moves from its cold position to the hot position. Thus irrespective of travel the load remains constant over the complete range of movement. Therefore, it is called a constant load hanger. Compared to a variable load hanger where with movement the load varies & the hot load & cold load are two different values governed by the travel & spring constant. A CES unit does not have any spring rate.
Most prevalent work principle for CSH is a bell crank mechanism. The bell crank lever rotates around the fulcrum point. One end of the Bell crank lever is connected to the pipe &#;P&#;, the other end is connected to the spring by the tie rod. Thus when the pipe moves down from cold to hot condition, the point P moves down, and as it moves down the Bell crank lever will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction & tie rod connected to the spring will be pulled in, by which the spring gets further compressed. When the pipe moves up the bell crank lever will rotate (in the clockwise direction) & the tie rod connected to spring will be pushed out thus allowing the spring to expand or relax.
Another popular principle is three spring or adjusting spring mechanism. In this case one main vertical spring takes the main load of the pipe. There are situated other two spring with horizontal orientation to balance any extra load coming in upward or downward direction.
Snubber or shock absorber
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Dynamic Restraints: The restraint system performs an entirely different function to that of the supports. The latter is intended to carry the weight of the pipe work and allow it to move freely under normal operating conditions. The restraint system is intended to protect the pipe work, the plant and the structure from abnormal conditions; it should not impede the function of the supports. Conditions that necessitate the use of restraints are as follows &#; &#; Earthquake. &#; Fluid disturbance. &#; Certain system functions. &#; Environmental influences. In areas that are situated on or near to geological fault lines it is common practice to protect the plant from potential earthquake activity. In such plant there will be a very large requirement for dynamic restraints. Fluid disturbance can be caused by the effect of pumps and compressors or occasionally fluid in a liquid state entering a pipe intended for the transportation of gas or steam. Some system functions such as rapid valve closure, pulsation due to pumping and the operation of safety relief valves will cause irregular and sudden loading patterns within the piping system. The environment can cause disturbance due to high wind load or in the case of offshore oil and gas rigs, impact by ocean waves. The restraint system will be designed to cater for all of these influences. A restraint is a device that prevents either the pipe work or the plant to which the pipe work is connected being damaged due to the occurrence of any one or more of the above phenomenon. It is designed to absorb and transfer sudden increases in load from the pipe into the building structure and to deaden any opposing oscillation between the pipe and the structure. Therefore, dynamic restraints are required to be very stiff, to have high load capacity and to minimize free movement between pipe and structure.
Depending on working principle, snubbers can be classified as
Materials
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Pipe supports are fabricated from a variety of materials including structural steel, carbon steel, stainless steel, galvanized steel, aluminum, ductile iron and FRP composites. Most pipe supports are coated to protect against moisture and corrosion.[6] Some methods for corrosion protection include: painting, zinc coatings, hot dip galvanizing or a combination of these.[7] In the case of FRP composite pipe supports, the elements required to form a corrosion cell aren't present, so no additional coatings or protections are necessary.[8]
Standards
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References
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